Friday, October 26, 2007
PENDUAN PENULISAN
Guidelines forWritingPhilosophy Papers
1. Overview:
A. What is a philosophy paper?
The primary focus of a philosophy paper is the argument. An argument in philosophy is not merely a disagreement between people. An argument is a set of premises or reasons that are presented as support or grounds for believing a conclusion. If a claim is true, then there must be some good reasons for believing it. The goal of a good argument is to present and defend true conclusions. Philosophy is devoted to uncovering and clarifying the reasons that support conclusions and separating them from the claims that allegedly support the conclusion but fail. In philosophy papers we present, explain, and critically evaluate arguments.
B. Types of philosophy papers: In some cases, a famous and influential argument will be the subject of a paper assignment. Sometimes a philosophy paper assignment will require you to present and explain two or more arguments. And some philosophy paper assignments will ask you to present your own argument for your own conclusion about a given subject. Papers assignments are expository when they require that the students present and explain an argument or set of ideas without critically evaluating them. Students writing expository papers should strive to demonstrate a thorough comprehension of the argument with a clear and well-organized presentation.
Papers are argumentative when they require that the student present and explain an argument or arguments and then critically evaluate them for philosophical soundness by presenting objections or defend them against objections. Students writing expository papers must give a clear and well-organized exposition of the argument, then they should evaluate the philosophical success of that argument. More detailed suggestions for critical evaluations are in sections 13 and 14.
C. Purpose: The purpose of a philosophy paper assignment is to develop students' critical thinking skills, help them acquire an understanding of important philosophical issues, make them better at presenting and evaluating arguments, and make them better writers.
D. Clarity: In a philosophy paper you should strive to state the argument(s) with as much clarity and precision as you can whether it is your own position or someone else's. The conclusions of the arguments and the premises should be stated simply and clearly.
E. Thesis: Every philosophy paper should contain a clearly articulated thesis. Your thesis is the central or overall claim that you are arguing for. If the paper is expository, then your thesis will simply state the expository goal of the paper. "Aristotle endorses a virtue theory of morality," for instance, could be the thesis of an expository paper that asked you to present and explain Aristotle's theory of ethics.
The thesis of an argumentative paper will clearly state the position that you are going to endorse in a philosophical debate. "I will argue that Aristotle's moral theory fails because it does not provide an adequate account of specific moral actions," is an example of an argumentative thesis for a paper assignment that asks you to present and critically evaluate Aristotle's moral theory. "The physicalist hypothesis is inadequate as an explanation of consciousness," is another example of an argumentative thesis in a paper about explanations of consciousness.
2. Structure.
A. General recommendations. We recommend that most philosophy papers have the following kind of structure:
I. Introduction.
1. Introduce the topic as stated in the assignment.
2. Briefly state the thesis that the paper will defend.
3. Briefly outline the argument that will support the thesis, discuss the position being presented, or the issues that the paper will discuss, and state the plan for the paper.
II. Exposition.
Depending on the type of paper:
1. Explain the argument(s) regarding the topic(s) stated in I, supporting all important attributions with quotes, paraphrases, and citations from the text.
2. Make each step of the argument(s) as clear as possible.
III. Critical Evaluation. (not applicable in expository papers)
1. Enumerate the problems with the arguments that you laid out in II. Explain and support with textual references.
IV. Conclusion.
1. Restate the thesis of the paper.
2. Restate the basic issues that you explained in II.
3. Restate the criticisms that you explained and defended in III.
B. Introduction. The introduction of your paper should range from a few paragraphs to a page or two, depending on the length of the paper. (A 4 page paper should not have a 2 page introduction, for example.)
In the introduction, avoid abstract or empty sentences like, "I will then describe the argument that Searle gives for his conclusion." A brief statement of the argument is much better and informs the reader about the subject of the paper: "Searle argues that computers cannot think because computers are incapable of intentionality and understanding." Similarly, "I will conclude that Kant's argument concerning space is mistaken because of developments in modern mathematics," is more illuminating to the reader than, "I will draw conclusions in this paper."
Quoting the dictionary definition of terms from Webster's or another desk reference is usually not appropriate for a philosophical paper. The philosophical use of a term are often not captured by a standard dictionary definition.
C. Sections II and III should not be intermingled. While it may seem intuitive to criticize a point in an argument immediately after you have explained it, the reader is probably not clear at this point on the overall structure or goal of the argument. Be sure you have sufficiently explained the whole argument before evaluating it. And make sure it is clear to your reader at every point whether you are presenting or critically evaluating the argument.
D. Your conclusion should contain no surprises. That is, try to avoid bringing up new issues, new criticisms, or different comments that belonged in the exposition or critical evaluation section. Students often make very interesting suggestions about what is wrong with the philosopher's position in the last few sentences of the paper without spelling out the details. Such comments belong in the body of the paper. The conclusion should, for the most part, restate the central accomplishments of the paper.
3. Mechanics of writing:
Consult a standard manual of grammar and style for a complete listing of the rules of grammar, punctuation, usage, and style. The American Philosophical Association uses the Chicago Manual of style (listed below). Individual teachers may have preferences:
Style sheets:
Chicago Editorial Staff, The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 5th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1999.
Guides to grammar and writing:
Aaron, Jane E. The Little, Brown Essential Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. New York:
Addison, Wesley, Longman Publishing, 2000.
Hacker, Diana. The Bedford Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin Press, 1991.
Strunk, William and White, E.B. The Elements of Style. 4th ed. New York: Allyn and Bacon Publishing, 1999.
4. Common problems with certain words.
There are a number of writing problems that occur frequently enough to deserve special mention here:
A. People often confuse "then" and "than." The former indicates sequence, either chronological or logical: "If I miss class, then I will miss the deadline." The latter is used to show contrast: "Jane is stronger than Jack."
B. "Very," "really," and "basically," are clumsy words to use in an academic paper. They do not add anything to the sentence that is not said without them. "Further" often has the same problem or is misused. "He further argues that . . .," says little that, "He argues that . . .," or "He then argues that . . .," does not.
C. Avoid using the word, "feels," when attributing philosophical claims to an author. When we write philosophy papers, we are discussing what the author has claimed, stated, argued, or said. We are rarely concerned with the author's feelings, nor are we in a position to know what they are. "Aristotle claims that rationality leads to the happy life," is better than, "Aristotle feels that rationality leads to the happy life."
D. "This," used at the beginning or inside a sentence to refer to something in the previous sentence is often problematic. Consider, "This is what he means with the cogito argument." "This," is a pronoun, but the antecedent, or the noun that it refers to, is frequently unclear. Avoid the term unless it is absolutely clear what it refers to.
E. Capital letters should not be used for emphasis.
5. Sentences.
A. Fragments. Every sentence should have a subject and a verb. You should avoid sentence fragments. "Like his example of a triangle." for instance, is not a complete sentence.
B. Avoid passive voice. Your choice of verbs should be careful and deliberate, and it should be active wherever possible. "Arguments were given in support of the liberal position," is in passive voice. No actor or subject is performing the action. "Mill argues in favor of the liberal position," tells us who is arguing and changes the verb from "were given" to "argues."
C. Avoid vacuous or empty claims. Each sentence in your paper is an important opportunity to say something about the assigned topic. Sometimes we write sentences that on the surface seem to make a claim of substance, but nothing is actually stated. Consider what is said by this example, "From this point forward other issues that Descartes proclaims in the Meditations are expressed and are thoroughly reasoned." When we simplify this sentence it seems to be saying that Descartes expresses and reasons some issues. But this point doesn't need to be made. What is important for a philosophy paper is the content of those claims. A sentence about what specific claims Descartes makes, or how he reasons from one point to the next would be much better.
D. Use transitions or write sentences so that the connection to the previous and next sentence is clear to your reader.
6. Paragraphs.
A. All paragraphs should have a clear thesis sentence that relates clearly to the thesis of the paper. Usually the thesis sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph where it can help the reader understand how the point being made fits into the purpose of the paper. The rest of the paragraph should support this thesis sentence with explanations, quotes, and citations from the text.
B. If you are going to make a new point, then start a new paragraph. Be careful about jumping too quickly from one point to the next or mixing too many issues together. Any new or different topics should be gathered together by topic and put into another paragraphs. Each paragraph should have cohesive unity that resembles a well-written paper.
C. Use transitions to make it clear to your reader how a paragraph is related to the previous or next paragraph. Connect your paragraphs in a logical way, even if that means saying in the first sentence of a paragraph something like "Having discussed X, I will now consider Y." "Now that we have seen what the faculty of the will is for Kant, the next issue that needs to be addressed is what conditions make a will good instead of bad," is an example of a transition sentence that clarifies the connection between the issues being discussed in the adjacent paragraphs and helps the reader see the development of points in the paper.
7. Writing Style.
A. The diction of a college paper should be more formal than conversational English. We all say things like, "I don't buy that argument," or "What does she say about that?" in conversation, but those kind of casual and colloquial comments are not appropriate for the subject matter or context of a college paper.
B. We should avoid cliches in our writing. Phrases like, "For thousands of years, philosophers have wondered about. . .," and "for all intents and purposes," are cheap sayings that get casually thrown into a paper indicating to the reader that the author does not choose her words carefully. Sayings like these get used so often that they lose their meaning. The latter example gets misspelled as, "for all intensive purposes," because people have lost sight of what it is supposed to be expressing.
C. Avoid auto-biographical details about your experience in writing the paper. Comments like, "I had a hard time reading Nagel," or "This assignment has taught me a lot," are not appropriate. The assignment is to address the paper topic, not give a diary entry or a casual statement about personal history.
D. "I believe," or "It is my opinion that," are often unnecessary in a paper, as well. You are the author of the paper, so it goes without saying that the claims made in it are yours (with the exception of quotes and paraphrases). Adding that a claim is your "opinion," usually doesn't inform your reader of anything new. In fact, such claims may undermine your efforts to convince the reader.
E. Avoid wordiness. We often include words in our sentences that are not necessary. Consider the differences between, "In an effort to further prove her view, Smith describes an experiment that shows her point," and, "Smith illustrates her point with an experiment." Sixteen words have been reduced to six. Ask yourself what is lost by changing, "The fact that the author believes that social justice is possible leads her to defend the claim that people should participate in their democratic systems," to, "She argues that people should participate in their democratic systems because social justice is possible." Twenty five words have been reduced to fifteen and with a dramatic improvement in the sentence.
F. Discussions of philosophical works, even ancient ones, should be in the present tense. Aristotle, for instance, has long been dead, but the text which contains his arguments is still with us; it is current and living in a sense. The ideas in it are read and understood in the present. So replace, "Aristotle argued that," and "Hobbes' view was," with "Aristotle argues," and "Hobbes' view is."
8. Quotes.
A. You should make extensive use of relevant quotes to support any major attributions that you make to the author being discussed. If you claim, "Descartes believes that the mind is indivisible," for instance, you should give a quote and citation of the passage where he makes that claim.
B. Quotes need to be introduced. At a minimum, you should write, "Descartes claims," "Socrates states," or "Wittgenstein believes," and then give the quote. An unattributed quote floating in the middle of the text of your paper is confusing to the reader, its source is not clear, and is stylistically poor.
C. Quotes need to be explained. The relevance, implication, and meaning of the author's claims in a quote need to be explained immediately after or before you give a quote. The majority of paper should be your own words, with support from the text.
D. Long quotes. Any quotes 4 lines or longer should be single-spaced, indented, and introduced. ("Locke claims, [return, indent, begin long quote]) Be cautious about using quotes of this length. The paper should be primarily your own words. If you are going to use a quote of this length, be sure it is a good one and that all of it is relevant to the point you are making.
E. Using an Ellipsis. If the quote is not all relevant, use an ellipsis (". . .") to omit unnecessary parts. The ellipsis is only needed when you omit internal parts of the quote, not at the beginning or end. It is understood when you use a quote that there are omissions before and after. If you use an ellipsis, be careful not to distort or alter the author's claims through omission or by taking something out of context.
F. Citing your sources. In every case where someone else's work, ideas, research, or writing is used in your paper, a citation must be given for appropriate credit. Citations should be given as footnotes, end notes, or in another standard and approved format.
Typically, you will not be required to look at secondary sources in lower level courses. If you do, and if you use any of the ideas found in a secondary source, then you must give full credit in the form of a footnote or endnote, and a bibliographical citation. See the next section for guidelines. Using someone else's ideas from a secondary or primary source without giving them credit is plagiarism, a fancy way of describing stealing. The University's policy on plagiarism is available at http://www.csus.edu/admbus/umanual/UMA00150.htm
G. Do not use quotes for emphasis. Quotes "should not" be used to add extra stress to words as they are in this sentence.
H. Use/mention distinction for words. Use quotations around a word if you are saying something about the word (mentioning it) to distinguish it from a case where you are using it (e.g. "good" is a frequent topic of philosophical writing).
9. Citations.
Use a standard format for citing your sources.
The easiest method of citation is the Modern Language Association's (MLA) parenthetical documentation. The principle behind this method is to cite sources in parentheses immediately after quotes or paraphrases and include only the information that is necessary to identify the source to the reader in the works cited page.
If the author is mentioned in the sentence and only one source from that author is being used, all that is needed is the page number in parentheses. For example:
McCann (234) presents an argument that if God has no accidental properties then he cannot be temporal.
If the author's name does not appear, include it.
Is an eternal being capable of grasping tensed propositions? And if not, can any being incapable of knowing tensed propositions be omniscient (McCann, 243)?
If there is more than one work by the author, the work intended should be specified by date.
Conceptual relativity applies even to such fundamental concepts as "individual," and "object" (Putnam 1987, 18).
Using this method obviates the need for most endnotes and footnotes. The only notes needed are commentary notes by the author--and go sparingly on those.
All the works used in the paper are listed in a works cited page at the end of the paper. Use the following forms:
Book
Hacker, Diana. The Bedford Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin Press, 1991.
Article in Anthology or Textbook
McCann, Hugh J. "The God Beyond Time." Philosophy of Religion. 2nd ed. Ed. Louis P. Pojman. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1994. 231-245.
Article in Academic Journal
Putnam, Hilary. "Models and Reality." The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 45:3 (September 1980) 464-482.
Article in Newspaper
Bork, Robert H. "Again a Struggle for the Soul of the Court." New York Times 8 July 1992: B5.
Internet Source
Specify the title or filename and the source:
Peter Davson-Galle, "Realistic Truth Relativism, Frameworks of Belief and Conceptual Schemes," Electronic Journal of Analytic Philosophy, 1:6 (Spring 1996), 8. http://www.phil.indiana.edu/ejap
Works Cited
All entries should be listed alphabetically by author and chronologically within an author on a separate page at the end of the paper thus:
Bork, Robert H. "Again a Struggle for the Soul of the Court." New York Times 8 July 1992: B5.
Davson-Galle, Peter. "Realistic Truth Relativism, Frameworks of Belief and Conceptual Schemes," Electronic Journal of Analytic Philosophy, 1:6 (Spring 1996), 8. http://www.phil.indiana.edu/ejap
Hacker, Diana. The Bedford Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin Press, 1991.
McCann, Hugh J. "The God Beyond Time." Philosophy of Religion. 2nd ed. Ed. Louis P. Pojman. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1994. 231-245.
Putnam, Hilary. "Models and Reality." The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 45:3 (September 1980) 464-482.
______________. The Many Faces of Realism. Lasalle, IL: Open Court, 1987.
10. Proofread and edit your paper carefully.
A. There should be no spelling mistakes in an academic paper, particularly since automatic spell checkers are so common on word processors. Double check your spellings of proper names and philosophy terms that will not be in your spell checker.
B. Check your paper carefully for grammar and punctuation mistakes. Some of the most common mistakes in college writing are commas, and apostrophes in contractions and possessives. Consult the English grammar books listed above for specific rules. Strunk and White's The Elements of Style is a short and handy reference for grammar rules.
C. Reading your paper out loud or having someone else read it can be helpful when proofreading. You or your reader will notice awkward phrases, run-on sentences, non-sequiturs, and other problems that you would not notice otherwise.
11. Explain each step of the philosopher's arguments carefully and deliberately.
New terms need to be explained and the inferences that the author makes from one step of the argument to the next should be clear. A common mistake on philosophy papers is a failure to explain important concepts and arguments.
12. Audience.
You should write your philosophy papers as if your audience is intelligent and college-educated, but does not know about the issue you are addressing, and has not read the texts you have read. Do not write your paper for the instructor of the class, omitting important facts because you think she already knows them. One of the main goals of the writing exercise is to train students to carefully think through the issues themselves and learn to express and explain them clearly. Understanding a philosophical problem cannot be accomplished without being able to explain it simply and clearly. So in your paper you should strive to demonstrate that you understand all of the relevant issues, the steps in the arguments, and the problems associated with the arguments.
13. Critical evaluation.
You will often be asked to write a critical evaluation of a philosopher's position or an argument. An evaluation is a demanding task with specific guidelines. It is not simply an expression of the writer's opinions as many students think, although your views are a central part of it. As teachers, we want to see a demonstration of your critical reasoning abilities focused carefully on the topic. If you have been successful in the exposition portion of your paper, you have explained a number of specific steps and concepts that the philosopher(s) or arguments make in order to arrive at a philosophical conclusion. In the critical evaluation portion of your paper you should reconsider those steps with an eye towards identifying mistakes, missing or assumed premises, or important unexplained issues.
An argument can be criticized on the basis of four criteria:
A. The argument can be criticized for lack of clarity in the reasoning.
Sometimes the problem with reasoning is that it is just unclear what the author is trying to say. Of course, you must be careful when making this criticism that the problem is not your own lack of effort to understand challenging material. Nor is the point of this criticism to make a stylistic comment about vague writing. Hence, it is never permissible just to say that things aren't clear. You must say precisely what is not clear, and why this impedes your ability to understand and evaluate the reasoning at hand. Explain the philosophical significance of the lack of clarity.
Consider this argument. The premises are listed first with the conclusion following:
1. Drugs cause long term health problems.
2. Drugs cause people to be a threat to themselves and others.
3. Drugs impair people's judgment.
4. Therefore, it is wrong to take drugs.
In this argument it would be legitimate to claim that the term 'drug' is not clear enough for the argument to be successful. Caffeine, for example, is a drug and it is also addictive, but it is not clear whether the author believes it is wrong to drink caffeinated beverages.
B. An argument can be criticized if the reasons given in support of the conclusion are false.
The argument for a conclusion succeeds or fails on the basis of the premises that support it. So if one or more of the premises are false, the conclusion will not follow. However, if you call the truth of the reasons into question, then you must provide your own reasons for doubting them. Simply expressing earnest doubts or your own heartfelt beliefs to the contrary without substantiation are of no real interest.
It is very important to notice that when reasoning is given for a conclusion, then there is rarely any need to focus on the truth of the conclusion directly. The truth of the conclusion is a function of the truth of the reasons, and the degree of support the reasons give to the conclusion.
Hence, whenever you call the truth of the conclusion into question, it should be either because you are questioning the truth of the reasons, or the degree of support the reasons give to the conclusion (see next section).
Another important basis for calling the truth of the reasons into question is logical consistency. Reasoning is logically inconsistent when it is committed to both the truth and the falsity of a certain statement. It is a basic law of logic that no statement can be both true and false, so anytime you find a contradiction you know that one of the things being claimed has to be false. As an example consider this reasoning:
1. Addictive drugs take away a person's freedom
2. Therefore, addictive drugs should not be legal.
As it stands, the argument seems to be committed to the truth of the general principle that it is wrong to take away a person's freedom. The problem is that making drugs illegal also takes away a person's freedom, specifically, the freedom to take drugs. Hence, the author is committed to a logical contradiction, viz., that the statement "It is wrong to take away a person's freedom" is both true and false.
C. An argument can be criticized because the reasons given don't support the conclusion.
In some cases, the reasons offered in support for a conclusion may be true, but they still don't give us adequate grounds for accepting the conclusion. The simplest way to address this issue is to think in terms of producing counterexamples. A counterexample is an example that undermines the reasoning by showing that even if the reasons are true, they don't necessarily support the conclusion. For example, reconsider this argument:
1. Drugs are addictive.
2. Drugs cause long term health problems.
3. Drugs cause people to be a threat to themselves and others.
4. Drugs impair people's judgment.
5. Therefore, it is wrong to take drugs.
Now, consider the drug morphine. Morphine is a drug that satisfies all the reasons given. It is addictive; it can cause long term health problems; and it can impair a person's judgment. Nevertheless it is widely used by doctors to relieve extreme pain and few would claim that it is wrong to do so.
It is important to understand what makes this a counterexample. Notice we have not called the truth of the reasons into question. That would have been done in the previous section. Rather, we have assumed the truth of the reasons, and shown that the conclusion still does not necessarily follow.
Criticisms of this sort are not necessarily devastating to the reasoning. Sometimes they simply require the author to formulate the conclusion more carefully. In this case, for example, the author might simply make an explicit exception for legitimate medical purposes. The value of the criticism, then, is very often just to achieve clarity about the author's meaning rather than to provide an absolute refutation the author's reasoning.
D. An argument may also be criticized because of unstated implications of the reasoning.
All reasoning rests on unstated presuppositions and implies conclusions other than the ones that are explicitly formulated. In many cases, objections can be made to these presuppositions.
Consider the following:
Currently illegal drugs should not be legalized because legalization will cause more people to become addicted to drugs.
This statement rests on some important presuppositions. One of these is that there are people who are now currently dissuaded from taking some drugs only because the drugs are illegal. This is a very important assumption that might reasonably be called into question.
Another important presupposition of the above claim is that the negative result (increased drug addiction) would not be counterbalanced or outweighed by any positive results (e.g., a decrease in drug-related crime).
Here are some other considerations for writing good argument evaluations:
E. Even if you agree with the conclusion of an argument and you believe that the reasoning is sound, a good philosophy paper will address potential objections and defend against them. Rather than simply agreeing with the author, present some possible objections and either explain how the author would respond to them, or what potential responses are available to her.
F. You might disagree with the conclusion and the premises given to support it. Your critical evaluation will be similar to the previous case, but you will also explain which conclusion you think is true and why.
G. Often, a philosophy instructor is not looking for you to arrive at a specific criticism of an argument, although there are, in many cases, standard and obvious objections to be made. You are not being indoctrinated into a dogma. Rather, you are being evaluated on your critical thinking and writing abilities. What you conclude is often not as important as explaining how you arrived at those conclusions. What is important in your critical evaluation is that you raise some plausible and well-defended objections to the position that you presented earlier in the paper. Explain and defend the criticism you are presenting.
H. Do not present open, unanswered, or rhetorical questions. "Who's to say what a just society is?" or "How does Hume know that there is no physical substance?" or "How many heroin addicts have to die before the legalization advocates learn their lesson?" are examples of the worst kind of anti-intellectual and discussion-thwarting comments. State the objection that is behind these questions.
14. What not to do in a philosophical evaluation:
A. Disagreeing with an argument's or author's conclusion, but accepting the reasons for believing the conclusion is not an option in your critical evaluation. If you disagree with a conclusion, then you must say so and explain why with evaluations of the argument that allegedly supports it. Simply rejecting their position is not acceptable, nor are responses like, "Socrates can believe x because he is entitled to his opinion, but I disagree," or "I choose not to believe Russell," without any further explanation why.
B. Evaluations of the author's historical, personal, or psychological background are not acceptable philosophical criticisms. "Anselm was biased because everyone in his time believed in God," or "Descartes believed what he was brought up to believe by the Jesuits," or "Aristotle was merely defending the interests of his privileged class," are not sufficient philosophical criticisms. In fact, these are fallacious ad hominem attacks on the person that ignore the merits of the arguments.
C. Furthermore, stylistic evaluations of the author's work are not appropriate for philosophy papers. The purpose of a philosophical evaluation is not to comment on how clear or well-expressed the author's work is, nor is it to address whether or not the author has given enough examples. So comments like, "Sartre's argument is well put together," "There are not enough examples," or "The argument is clearly stated and well-written," are not appropriate for a philosophy paper.
D. Do not misrepresent an author's reasoning. If you are reconstructing someone else's argument, your evaluations will be stronger if you give the most charitable and accurate argument on their behalf that you can.
E. Avoid exaggeration. If you overstate your position or the position you are analyzing, you obscure the facts and impede philosophical progress.
15. Avoid the use of "man," "mankind," "he," "him," and "his," when you mean to include all humans.
A great deal of evidence suggests that this kind of language has a significant and harmful effect on people. Women and girls are excluded when all examples are male or about mankind. Studies have shown that girls, for instance, are less likely to think of themselves in a wide variety of occupations when exposed to such language. Studies have also shown that discussions about "mankind" are much less likely to invoke considerations of both women and men, than discussions of "humankind."
The repeated use of men in important examples has led many of us to have unfortunate expectations, either conscious or unconscious, about what women can do and what men can do. Imagine an example in a paper of a brain surgeon operating on a patient. If the author then said, "she stimulated the motor skill centers in the patient's brain," you would probably be surprised to hear the surgeon is a woman. Our surprise reflects expectations we have about who is in these roles or even who is capable of performing such roles. Varying our examples and avoiding "man" and "mankind" will benefit men and women alike.
1. Overview:
A. What is a philosophy paper?
The primary focus of a philosophy paper is the argument. An argument in philosophy is not merely a disagreement between people. An argument is a set of premises or reasons that are presented as support or grounds for believing a conclusion. If a claim is true, then there must be some good reasons for believing it. The goal of a good argument is to present and defend true conclusions. Philosophy is devoted to uncovering and clarifying the reasons that support conclusions and separating them from the claims that allegedly support the conclusion but fail. In philosophy papers we present, explain, and critically evaluate arguments.
B. Types of philosophy papers: In some cases, a famous and influential argument will be the subject of a paper assignment. Sometimes a philosophy paper assignment will require you to present and explain two or more arguments. And some philosophy paper assignments will ask you to present your own argument for your own conclusion about a given subject. Papers assignments are expository when they require that the students present and explain an argument or set of ideas without critically evaluating them. Students writing expository papers should strive to demonstrate a thorough comprehension of the argument with a clear and well-organized presentation.
Papers are argumentative when they require that the student present and explain an argument or arguments and then critically evaluate them for philosophical soundness by presenting objections or defend them against objections. Students writing expository papers must give a clear and well-organized exposition of the argument, then they should evaluate the philosophical success of that argument. More detailed suggestions for critical evaluations are in sections 13 and 14.
C. Purpose: The purpose of a philosophy paper assignment is to develop students' critical thinking skills, help them acquire an understanding of important philosophical issues, make them better at presenting and evaluating arguments, and make them better writers.
D. Clarity: In a philosophy paper you should strive to state the argument(s) with as much clarity and precision as you can whether it is your own position or someone else's. The conclusions of the arguments and the premises should be stated simply and clearly.
E. Thesis: Every philosophy paper should contain a clearly articulated thesis. Your thesis is the central or overall claim that you are arguing for. If the paper is expository, then your thesis will simply state the expository goal of the paper. "Aristotle endorses a virtue theory of morality," for instance, could be the thesis of an expository paper that asked you to present and explain Aristotle's theory of ethics.
The thesis of an argumentative paper will clearly state the position that you are going to endorse in a philosophical debate. "I will argue that Aristotle's moral theory fails because it does not provide an adequate account of specific moral actions," is an example of an argumentative thesis for a paper assignment that asks you to present and critically evaluate Aristotle's moral theory. "The physicalist hypothesis is inadequate as an explanation of consciousness," is another example of an argumentative thesis in a paper about explanations of consciousness.
2. Structure.
A. General recommendations. We recommend that most philosophy papers have the following kind of structure:
I. Introduction.
1. Introduce the topic as stated in the assignment.
2. Briefly state the thesis that the paper will defend.
3. Briefly outline the argument that will support the thesis, discuss the position being presented, or the issues that the paper will discuss, and state the plan for the paper.
II. Exposition.
Depending on the type of paper:
1. Explain the argument(s) regarding the topic(s) stated in I, supporting all important attributions with quotes, paraphrases, and citations from the text.
2. Make each step of the argument(s) as clear as possible.
III. Critical Evaluation. (not applicable in expository papers)
1. Enumerate the problems with the arguments that you laid out in II. Explain and support with textual references.
IV. Conclusion.
1. Restate the thesis of the paper.
2. Restate the basic issues that you explained in II.
3. Restate the criticisms that you explained and defended in III.
B. Introduction. The introduction of your paper should range from a few paragraphs to a page or two, depending on the length of the paper. (A 4 page paper should not have a 2 page introduction, for example.)
In the introduction, avoid abstract or empty sentences like, "I will then describe the argument that Searle gives for his conclusion." A brief statement of the argument is much better and informs the reader about the subject of the paper: "Searle argues that computers cannot think because computers are incapable of intentionality and understanding." Similarly, "I will conclude that Kant's argument concerning space is mistaken because of developments in modern mathematics," is more illuminating to the reader than, "I will draw conclusions in this paper."
Quoting the dictionary definition of terms from Webster's or another desk reference is usually not appropriate for a philosophical paper. The philosophical use of a term are often not captured by a standard dictionary definition.
C. Sections II and III should not be intermingled. While it may seem intuitive to criticize a point in an argument immediately after you have explained it, the reader is probably not clear at this point on the overall structure or goal of the argument. Be sure you have sufficiently explained the whole argument before evaluating it. And make sure it is clear to your reader at every point whether you are presenting or critically evaluating the argument.
D. Your conclusion should contain no surprises. That is, try to avoid bringing up new issues, new criticisms, or different comments that belonged in the exposition or critical evaluation section. Students often make very interesting suggestions about what is wrong with the philosopher's position in the last few sentences of the paper without spelling out the details. Such comments belong in the body of the paper. The conclusion should, for the most part, restate the central accomplishments of the paper.
3. Mechanics of writing:
Consult a standard manual of grammar and style for a complete listing of the rules of grammar, punctuation, usage, and style. The American Philosophical Association uses the Chicago Manual of style (listed below). Individual teachers may have preferences:
Style sheets:
Chicago Editorial Staff, The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 5th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1999.
Guides to grammar and writing:
Aaron, Jane E. The Little, Brown Essential Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. New York:
Addison, Wesley, Longman Publishing, 2000.
Hacker, Diana. The Bedford Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin Press, 1991.
Strunk, William and White, E.B. The Elements of Style. 4th ed. New York: Allyn and Bacon Publishing, 1999.
4. Common problems with certain words.
There are a number of writing problems that occur frequently enough to deserve special mention here:
A. People often confuse "then" and "than." The former indicates sequence, either chronological or logical: "If I miss class, then I will miss the deadline." The latter is used to show contrast: "Jane is stronger than Jack."
B. "Very," "really," and "basically," are clumsy words to use in an academic paper. They do not add anything to the sentence that is not said without them. "Further" often has the same problem or is misused. "He further argues that . . .," says little that, "He argues that . . .," or "He then argues that . . .," does not.
C. Avoid using the word, "feels," when attributing philosophical claims to an author. When we write philosophy papers, we are discussing what the author has claimed, stated, argued, or said. We are rarely concerned with the author's feelings, nor are we in a position to know what they are. "Aristotle claims that rationality leads to the happy life," is better than, "Aristotle feels that rationality leads to the happy life."
D. "This," used at the beginning or inside a sentence to refer to something in the previous sentence is often problematic. Consider, "This is what he means with the cogito argument." "This," is a pronoun, but the antecedent, or the noun that it refers to, is frequently unclear. Avoid the term unless it is absolutely clear what it refers to.
E. Capital letters should not be used for emphasis.
5. Sentences.
A. Fragments. Every sentence should have a subject and a verb. You should avoid sentence fragments. "Like his example of a triangle." for instance, is not a complete sentence.
B. Avoid passive voice. Your choice of verbs should be careful and deliberate, and it should be active wherever possible. "Arguments were given in support of the liberal position," is in passive voice. No actor or subject is performing the action. "Mill argues in favor of the liberal position," tells us who is arguing and changes the verb from "were given" to "argues."
C. Avoid vacuous or empty claims. Each sentence in your paper is an important opportunity to say something about the assigned topic. Sometimes we write sentences that on the surface seem to make a claim of substance, but nothing is actually stated. Consider what is said by this example, "From this point forward other issues that Descartes proclaims in the Meditations are expressed and are thoroughly reasoned." When we simplify this sentence it seems to be saying that Descartes expresses and reasons some issues. But this point doesn't need to be made. What is important for a philosophy paper is the content of those claims. A sentence about what specific claims Descartes makes, or how he reasons from one point to the next would be much better.
D. Use transitions or write sentences so that the connection to the previous and next sentence is clear to your reader.
6. Paragraphs.
A. All paragraphs should have a clear thesis sentence that relates clearly to the thesis of the paper. Usually the thesis sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph where it can help the reader understand how the point being made fits into the purpose of the paper. The rest of the paragraph should support this thesis sentence with explanations, quotes, and citations from the text.
B. If you are going to make a new point, then start a new paragraph. Be careful about jumping too quickly from one point to the next or mixing too many issues together. Any new or different topics should be gathered together by topic and put into another paragraphs. Each paragraph should have cohesive unity that resembles a well-written paper.
C. Use transitions to make it clear to your reader how a paragraph is related to the previous or next paragraph. Connect your paragraphs in a logical way, even if that means saying in the first sentence of a paragraph something like "Having discussed X, I will now consider Y." "Now that we have seen what the faculty of the will is for Kant, the next issue that needs to be addressed is what conditions make a will good instead of bad," is an example of a transition sentence that clarifies the connection between the issues being discussed in the adjacent paragraphs and helps the reader see the development of points in the paper.
7. Writing Style.
A. The diction of a college paper should be more formal than conversational English. We all say things like, "I don't buy that argument," or "What does she say about that?" in conversation, but those kind of casual and colloquial comments are not appropriate for the subject matter or context of a college paper.
B. We should avoid cliches in our writing. Phrases like, "For thousands of years, philosophers have wondered about. . .," and "for all intents and purposes," are cheap sayings that get casually thrown into a paper indicating to the reader that the author does not choose her words carefully. Sayings like these get used so often that they lose their meaning. The latter example gets misspelled as, "for all intensive purposes," because people have lost sight of what it is supposed to be expressing.
C. Avoid auto-biographical details about your experience in writing the paper. Comments like, "I had a hard time reading Nagel," or "This assignment has taught me a lot," are not appropriate. The assignment is to address the paper topic, not give a diary entry or a casual statement about personal history.
D. "I believe," or "It is my opinion that," are often unnecessary in a paper, as well. You are the author of the paper, so it goes without saying that the claims made in it are yours (with the exception of quotes and paraphrases). Adding that a claim is your "opinion," usually doesn't inform your reader of anything new. In fact, such claims may undermine your efforts to convince the reader.
E. Avoid wordiness. We often include words in our sentences that are not necessary. Consider the differences between, "In an effort to further prove her view, Smith describes an experiment that shows her point," and, "Smith illustrates her point with an experiment." Sixteen words have been reduced to six. Ask yourself what is lost by changing, "The fact that the author believes that social justice is possible leads her to defend the claim that people should participate in their democratic systems," to, "She argues that people should participate in their democratic systems because social justice is possible." Twenty five words have been reduced to fifteen and with a dramatic improvement in the sentence.
F. Discussions of philosophical works, even ancient ones, should be in the present tense. Aristotle, for instance, has long been dead, but the text which contains his arguments is still with us; it is current and living in a sense. The ideas in it are read and understood in the present. So replace, "Aristotle argued that," and "Hobbes' view was," with "Aristotle argues," and "Hobbes' view is."
8. Quotes.
A. You should make extensive use of relevant quotes to support any major attributions that you make to the author being discussed. If you claim, "Descartes believes that the mind is indivisible," for instance, you should give a quote and citation of the passage where he makes that claim.
B. Quotes need to be introduced. At a minimum, you should write, "Descartes claims," "Socrates states," or "Wittgenstein believes," and then give the quote. An unattributed quote floating in the middle of the text of your paper is confusing to the reader, its source is not clear, and is stylistically poor.
C. Quotes need to be explained. The relevance, implication, and meaning of the author's claims in a quote need to be explained immediately after or before you give a quote. The majority of paper should be your own words, with support from the text.
D. Long quotes. Any quotes 4 lines or longer should be single-spaced, indented, and introduced. ("Locke claims, [return, indent, begin long quote]) Be cautious about using quotes of this length. The paper should be primarily your own words. If you are going to use a quote of this length, be sure it is a good one and that all of it is relevant to the point you are making.
E. Using an Ellipsis. If the quote is not all relevant, use an ellipsis (". . .") to omit unnecessary parts. The ellipsis is only needed when you omit internal parts of the quote, not at the beginning or end. It is understood when you use a quote that there are omissions before and after. If you use an ellipsis, be careful not to distort or alter the author's claims through omission or by taking something out of context.
F. Citing your sources. In every case where someone else's work, ideas, research, or writing is used in your paper, a citation must be given for appropriate credit. Citations should be given as footnotes, end notes, or in another standard and approved format.
Typically, you will not be required to look at secondary sources in lower level courses. If you do, and if you use any of the ideas found in a secondary source, then you must give full credit in the form of a footnote or endnote, and a bibliographical citation. See the next section for guidelines. Using someone else's ideas from a secondary or primary source without giving them credit is plagiarism, a fancy way of describing stealing. The University's policy on plagiarism is available at http://www.csus.edu/admbus/umanual/UMA00150.htm
G. Do not use quotes for emphasis. Quotes "should not" be used to add extra stress to words as they are in this sentence.
H. Use/mention distinction for words. Use quotations around a word if you are saying something about the word (mentioning it) to distinguish it from a case where you are using it (e.g. "good" is a frequent topic of philosophical writing).
9. Citations.
Use a standard format for citing your sources.
The easiest method of citation is the Modern Language Association's (MLA) parenthetical documentation. The principle behind this method is to cite sources in parentheses immediately after quotes or paraphrases and include only the information that is necessary to identify the source to the reader in the works cited page.
If the author is mentioned in the sentence and only one source from that author is being used, all that is needed is the page number in parentheses. For example:
McCann (234) presents an argument that if God has no accidental properties then he cannot be temporal.
If the author's name does not appear, include it.
Is an eternal being capable of grasping tensed propositions? And if not, can any being incapable of knowing tensed propositions be omniscient (McCann, 243)?
If there is more than one work by the author, the work intended should be specified by date.
Conceptual relativity applies even to such fundamental concepts as "individual," and "object" (Putnam 1987, 18).
Using this method obviates the need for most endnotes and footnotes. The only notes needed are commentary notes by the author--and go sparingly on those.
All the works used in the paper are listed in a works cited page at the end of the paper. Use the following forms:
Book
Hacker, Diana. The Bedford Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin Press, 1991.
Article in Anthology or Textbook
McCann, Hugh J. "The God Beyond Time." Philosophy of Religion. 2nd ed. Ed. Louis P. Pojman. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1994. 231-245.
Article in Academic Journal
Putnam, Hilary. "Models and Reality." The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 45:3 (September 1980) 464-482.
Article in Newspaper
Bork, Robert H. "Again a Struggle for the Soul of the Court." New York Times 8 July 1992: B5.
Internet Source
Specify the title or filename and the source:
Peter Davson-Galle, "Realistic Truth Relativism, Frameworks of Belief and Conceptual Schemes," Electronic Journal of Analytic Philosophy, 1:6 (Spring 1996), 8. http://www.phil.indiana.edu/ejap
Works Cited
All entries should be listed alphabetically by author and chronologically within an author on a separate page at the end of the paper thus:
Bork, Robert H. "Again a Struggle for the Soul of the Court." New York Times 8 July 1992: B5.
Davson-Galle, Peter. "Realistic Truth Relativism, Frameworks of Belief and Conceptual Schemes," Electronic Journal of Analytic Philosophy, 1:6 (Spring 1996), 8. http://www.phil.indiana.edu/ejap
Hacker, Diana. The Bedford Handbook for Writers. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin Press, 1991.
McCann, Hugh J. "The God Beyond Time." Philosophy of Religion. 2nd ed. Ed. Louis P. Pojman. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1994. 231-245.
Putnam, Hilary. "Models and Reality." The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 45:3 (September 1980) 464-482.
______________. The Many Faces of Realism. Lasalle, IL: Open Court, 1987.
10. Proofread and edit your paper carefully.
A. There should be no spelling mistakes in an academic paper, particularly since automatic spell checkers are so common on word processors. Double check your spellings of proper names and philosophy terms that will not be in your spell checker.
B. Check your paper carefully for grammar and punctuation mistakes. Some of the most common mistakes in college writing are commas, and apostrophes in contractions and possessives. Consult the English grammar books listed above for specific rules. Strunk and White's The Elements of Style is a short and handy reference for grammar rules.
C. Reading your paper out loud or having someone else read it can be helpful when proofreading. You or your reader will notice awkward phrases, run-on sentences, non-sequiturs, and other problems that you would not notice otherwise.
11. Explain each step of the philosopher's arguments carefully and deliberately.
New terms need to be explained and the inferences that the author makes from one step of the argument to the next should be clear. A common mistake on philosophy papers is a failure to explain important concepts and arguments.
12. Audience.
You should write your philosophy papers as if your audience is intelligent and college-educated, but does not know about the issue you are addressing, and has not read the texts you have read. Do not write your paper for the instructor of the class, omitting important facts because you think she already knows them. One of the main goals of the writing exercise is to train students to carefully think through the issues themselves and learn to express and explain them clearly. Understanding a philosophical problem cannot be accomplished without being able to explain it simply and clearly. So in your paper you should strive to demonstrate that you understand all of the relevant issues, the steps in the arguments, and the problems associated with the arguments.
13. Critical evaluation.
You will often be asked to write a critical evaluation of a philosopher's position or an argument. An evaluation is a demanding task with specific guidelines. It is not simply an expression of the writer's opinions as many students think, although your views are a central part of it. As teachers, we want to see a demonstration of your critical reasoning abilities focused carefully on the topic. If you have been successful in the exposition portion of your paper, you have explained a number of specific steps and concepts that the philosopher(s) or arguments make in order to arrive at a philosophical conclusion. In the critical evaluation portion of your paper you should reconsider those steps with an eye towards identifying mistakes, missing or assumed premises, or important unexplained issues.
An argument can be criticized on the basis of four criteria:
A. The argument can be criticized for lack of clarity in the reasoning.
Sometimes the problem with reasoning is that it is just unclear what the author is trying to say. Of course, you must be careful when making this criticism that the problem is not your own lack of effort to understand challenging material. Nor is the point of this criticism to make a stylistic comment about vague writing. Hence, it is never permissible just to say that things aren't clear. You must say precisely what is not clear, and why this impedes your ability to understand and evaluate the reasoning at hand. Explain the philosophical significance of the lack of clarity.
Consider this argument. The premises are listed first with the conclusion following:
1. Drugs cause long term health problems.
2. Drugs cause people to be a threat to themselves and others.
3. Drugs impair people's judgment.
4. Therefore, it is wrong to take drugs.
In this argument it would be legitimate to claim that the term 'drug' is not clear enough for the argument to be successful. Caffeine, for example, is a drug and it is also addictive, but it is not clear whether the author believes it is wrong to drink caffeinated beverages.
B. An argument can be criticized if the reasons given in support of the conclusion are false.
The argument for a conclusion succeeds or fails on the basis of the premises that support it. So if one or more of the premises are false, the conclusion will not follow. However, if you call the truth of the reasons into question, then you must provide your own reasons for doubting them. Simply expressing earnest doubts or your own heartfelt beliefs to the contrary without substantiation are of no real interest.
It is very important to notice that when reasoning is given for a conclusion, then there is rarely any need to focus on the truth of the conclusion directly. The truth of the conclusion is a function of the truth of the reasons, and the degree of support the reasons give to the conclusion.
Hence, whenever you call the truth of the conclusion into question, it should be either because you are questioning the truth of the reasons, or the degree of support the reasons give to the conclusion (see next section).
Another important basis for calling the truth of the reasons into question is logical consistency. Reasoning is logically inconsistent when it is committed to both the truth and the falsity of a certain statement. It is a basic law of logic that no statement can be both true and false, so anytime you find a contradiction you know that one of the things being claimed has to be false. As an example consider this reasoning:
1. Addictive drugs take away a person's freedom
2. Therefore, addictive drugs should not be legal.
As it stands, the argument seems to be committed to the truth of the general principle that it is wrong to take away a person's freedom. The problem is that making drugs illegal also takes away a person's freedom, specifically, the freedom to take drugs. Hence, the author is committed to a logical contradiction, viz., that the statement "It is wrong to take away a person's freedom" is both true and false.
C. An argument can be criticized because the reasons given don't support the conclusion.
In some cases, the reasons offered in support for a conclusion may be true, but they still don't give us adequate grounds for accepting the conclusion. The simplest way to address this issue is to think in terms of producing counterexamples. A counterexample is an example that undermines the reasoning by showing that even if the reasons are true, they don't necessarily support the conclusion. For example, reconsider this argument:
1. Drugs are addictive.
2. Drugs cause long term health problems.
3. Drugs cause people to be a threat to themselves and others.
4. Drugs impair people's judgment.
5. Therefore, it is wrong to take drugs.
Now, consider the drug morphine. Morphine is a drug that satisfies all the reasons given. It is addictive; it can cause long term health problems; and it can impair a person's judgment. Nevertheless it is widely used by doctors to relieve extreme pain and few would claim that it is wrong to do so.
It is important to understand what makes this a counterexample. Notice we have not called the truth of the reasons into question. That would have been done in the previous section. Rather, we have assumed the truth of the reasons, and shown that the conclusion still does not necessarily follow.
Criticisms of this sort are not necessarily devastating to the reasoning. Sometimes they simply require the author to formulate the conclusion more carefully. In this case, for example, the author might simply make an explicit exception for legitimate medical purposes. The value of the criticism, then, is very often just to achieve clarity about the author's meaning rather than to provide an absolute refutation the author's reasoning.
D. An argument may also be criticized because of unstated implications of the reasoning.
All reasoning rests on unstated presuppositions and implies conclusions other than the ones that are explicitly formulated. In many cases, objections can be made to these presuppositions.
Consider the following:
Currently illegal drugs should not be legalized because legalization will cause more people to become addicted to drugs.
This statement rests on some important presuppositions. One of these is that there are people who are now currently dissuaded from taking some drugs only because the drugs are illegal. This is a very important assumption that might reasonably be called into question.
Another important presupposition of the above claim is that the negative result (increased drug addiction) would not be counterbalanced or outweighed by any positive results (e.g., a decrease in drug-related crime).
Here are some other considerations for writing good argument evaluations:
E. Even if you agree with the conclusion of an argument and you believe that the reasoning is sound, a good philosophy paper will address potential objections and defend against them. Rather than simply agreeing with the author, present some possible objections and either explain how the author would respond to them, or what potential responses are available to her.
F. You might disagree with the conclusion and the premises given to support it. Your critical evaluation will be similar to the previous case, but you will also explain which conclusion you think is true and why.
G. Often, a philosophy instructor is not looking for you to arrive at a specific criticism of an argument, although there are, in many cases, standard and obvious objections to be made. You are not being indoctrinated into a dogma. Rather, you are being evaluated on your critical thinking and writing abilities. What you conclude is often not as important as explaining how you arrived at those conclusions. What is important in your critical evaluation is that you raise some plausible and well-defended objections to the position that you presented earlier in the paper. Explain and defend the criticism you are presenting.
H. Do not present open, unanswered, or rhetorical questions. "Who's to say what a just society is?" or "How does Hume know that there is no physical substance?" or "How many heroin addicts have to die before the legalization advocates learn their lesson?" are examples of the worst kind of anti-intellectual and discussion-thwarting comments. State the objection that is behind these questions.
14. What not to do in a philosophical evaluation:
A. Disagreeing with an argument's or author's conclusion, but accepting the reasons for believing the conclusion is not an option in your critical evaluation. If you disagree with a conclusion, then you must say so and explain why with evaluations of the argument that allegedly supports it. Simply rejecting their position is not acceptable, nor are responses like, "Socrates can believe x because he is entitled to his opinion, but I disagree," or "I choose not to believe Russell," without any further explanation why.
B. Evaluations of the author's historical, personal, or psychological background are not acceptable philosophical criticisms. "Anselm was biased because everyone in his time believed in God," or "Descartes believed what he was brought up to believe by the Jesuits," or "Aristotle was merely defending the interests of his privileged class," are not sufficient philosophical criticisms. In fact, these are fallacious ad hominem attacks on the person that ignore the merits of the arguments.
C. Furthermore, stylistic evaluations of the author's work are not appropriate for philosophy papers. The purpose of a philosophical evaluation is not to comment on how clear or well-expressed the author's work is, nor is it to address whether or not the author has given enough examples. So comments like, "Sartre's argument is well put together," "There are not enough examples," or "The argument is clearly stated and well-written," are not appropriate for a philosophy paper.
D. Do not misrepresent an author's reasoning. If you are reconstructing someone else's argument, your evaluations will be stronger if you give the most charitable and accurate argument on their behalf that you can.
E. Avoid exaggeration. If you overstate your position or the position you are analyzing, you obscure the facts and impede philosophical progress.
15. Avoid the use of "man," "mankind," "he," "him," and "his," when you mean to include all humans.
A great deal of evidence suggests that this kind of language has a significant and harmful effect on people. Women and girls are excluded when all examples are male or about mankind. Studies have shown that girls, for instance, are less likely to think of themselves in a wide variety of occupations when exposed to such language. Studies have also shown that discussions about "mankind" are much less likely to invoke considerations of both women and men, than discussions of "humankind."
The repeated use of men in important examples has led many of us to have unfortunate expectations, either conscious or unconscious, about what women can do and what men can do. Imagine an example in a paper of a brain surgeon operating on a patient. If the author then said, "she stimulated the motor skill centers in the patient's brain," you would probably be surprised to hear the surgeon is a woman. Our surprise reflects expectations we have about who is in these roles or even who is capable of performing such roles. Varying our examples and avoiding "man" and "mankind" will benefit men and women alike.
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WRITING GUIDELINES 2
WRITING GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH PAPERS
Title page
Titles should be brief and incorporate key words that focus attention on hypotheses and objectives of the proposed research. Titles are centered and all in capital letters. The author's name is centered in capital and lower-case letters, with first name first. The author's address is centered in capital and lower-case letters in italics. Date of submission is centered as is the person or agency to which the paper is submitted. The date and person/agency are appropriate for theses, and term papers but not for papers submitted for publication.
Abstract
The abstract is the first section of a paper following the title page and the last to be written. It is the most important section of the paper, and the most difficult to write. Abstracts are generally less than 250 words in length, very concise, and precisely worded. A Descriptive Abstract, which should be avoided because it cannot stand alone without the remainder of the paper, is a mere condensation of the paper. The preferred form, the Informative Abstract is a self-contained entity that: 1) states the problem or purpose of the research, 2) presents the basic methodologies used, 3) summarizes the principal findings, 4) points out the major conclusions. Thus, the reader obtains the essence of the paper without the details of the full text. Where journal articles are concerned, readers will often go to the abstract only if the title is of interest and will read on only if the abstract is interesting and informative. In many instances, such as papers presented orally or as posters at society meetings, the abstract is the only published record of a body of research and, therefore, the mode of writing which is most critical to your professional development.
Introduction
Inform the reader of the subject, purpose, and scope of the proposed research. This section may include some literature review and a brief rationale as well as a statement of anticipated or realized beneficial outcome. Most importantly, the introduction must define the hypothesis and objectives of the proposed or completed research.
Literature review
This section consists of published information and controversies that pertain to the thesis of the proposed research. Though it is often presented in a history context, this literature establishes your expertise in working with the contemporary hypotheses, methodologies, and information of your field of research. Keep this section brief and to the point.
Materials and Methods
This section provides an outline of how your proposed work will proceed. It must provide information on the field and laboratory materials, data collection, and analytical techniques that you plan to use to accomplish your objective. The need for specific materials, laboratory equipment, and travel for field work should be justified in this section.
Results
This section of the research paper is that in which you present the data obtained during the course of your research. This represents the core of your labors in the lab or the field and is the set of data upon which your interpretations are based. Depending on the nature of the research, this section will variously include tables, graphs, photographs, maps, geologic columns, and written descriptions. However, all but the latter must be described and referred to in written text. A graph, table, or image without written text to describe its contents is of no use to the reader and does not assist that person in perceiving your insight into the data.
Discussion and Conclusions
In a research paper, the discussion presents the analysis and interpretation of the results and demonstrates that you have accomplished the purpose of the research. Always bear in mind that interpretations must derive from, and be consistent with, your documented observations. Contrary to the inaccurate stereotype of scientific writing as a dispassionate reporting of facts and figures, the discussion is a persuasive essay that is structured to convince the reader that your interpretations are valid and your work is worthwhile. To accomplish this it is useful to restate your most important results, support them with relevant observations from the literature, and briefly restate the The discussion should end with a firm conclusion which is a clear and simple synthesis of your work that leaves the reader with the strongest and most important single point of the research. This is best accomplished in one or two sentences located at the end of the discussion.
References
Footnotes are rarely used in geowriting. Sources of information are cited within the text by placing the author's name(s) and date of publication in parentheses either within or at the end of the sentence which refers to that information. Quotations are similarly cited within the text by including the source page number(s) within the parentheses following the date of publication. Complete references to source publications are given in a Literature or References Cited section. An example might be: (Miller 1921, p. 70-76).The References Cited section of your paper is arranged alphabetically by the first author's last name, at the end of the paper. Because the details of capitalization, punctuation, abbreviations, etc. vary among the geojournals it is essential that you scrupulously adhere to the citation style of the journal appropriate to your specific research. When in doubt use the GSA Bulletin format. For example: http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/bulguid4.htm When you scroll down in the GSA Bulletin Style and Manuscript Outline to the “References Cited” section, you will find a link to “Sample References.”
Appendices
An appendix consists of nonessential materials that support a point in the text by providing additional information. For example, the raw data used in statistical analyses usually appears as a table or data matrix in an appendix. These tables may include hundreds of data that are not well suited for inclusion within the body of the text itself. Another type of appendix consists of many paragraphs of discussion relevant to a specific point within the body of the text, but not to the discussion as a whole. A third type consists of a series of figures produced from statistical analysis, computer modeling, satellite imagery, and more that do not fit into the body of the text because or their large volume.
General Guidelines
Double space the entire manuscript (abstract, text, references, figure captions, tables appendices) on 8.5 x 11 inch paper with 1 inch margins.Number all pages; page number one is the page on which the abstract appears or on the first page of text if there is no abstract.Use a standard font; 10 or 12 point only.Do not justify or break words at the right margin unless they are hyphenated to begin with.Use appendices for long tables or listings such as locality information.Do not use footnotes.There are two levels of text headings. Center the first and use all capitals; underline the second and separate it from the text by a period and two hyphens. Use underlining instead of italics.Formally proposed and time (e.g., Early Cambrian, Late Devonian) and time-rock designations (e.g., Lower Cambrian, Upper Devonian) are proper nouns and are not synonymous. Time units are measured in years whereas time-rock units refer to position in section.Spell out whole numbers zero through nine except when associated with an abbreviated unit of measurement (e.g., 5 mm); use Arabic numerals for numbers 10 and greater. Spell out all numbers beginning a sentence.Provide all measurements in metric units; English units may also be included in parentheses. Do not use periods for unit abbreviations.The geoscience faculty expect you to submit college-level work that reflects serious effort and adequate preparation on your part. Grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors should not appear on any submitted paper. Refer to The Skidmore Guide to Writing for specific details on standards for college-level writing.Plagiarism is unacceptable.
Plagiarism
For guidelines on what constitutes plagiarism consult:
http://hudson2.skidmore.edu/academics/writingbrd/WGDocumentation.html
Especially in science you want to reference and credit all work done by others. Referencing is very simple (see the How to Cite Sources section). When in doubt, include a citation.
How to present data
Data presented in the form of a table, bar chart, line graph, or figure quickly and effectively conveys your point or interpretation of the data to the reader/audience. Therefore, appropriate selection of the form for data presentation is important. That decision is based upon the point you wish to make. If the form you choose is well-constructed with an appropriate caption, it will be able to stand alone and will make a single point that supports a specific idea. All data must be presented with honesty, accuracy, and precision. If you choose to include a table or figure in your paper it must be cited within the text. Additionally, tables and figures are numbered sequentially and separately (e.g. Table 1, Figure 1, etc.) and each must have a descriptive caption.
Tables
A table is used to present a specific set of data to make a specific point. For instance, its easier to compare certain data points or to show trends or relationships between data when they are presented on a table. Provide the minimum number of rows and columns organized and labeled in a way that accurately and concisely conveys your point. If you wish to make more than one point, construct more tables.
Figures
Figures include diagrams, maps, photographs, flowcharts, line graphs, bar charts, and almost everything except tables and appendices. They must clearly and accurately convey additional information that may be difficult to convey in words.
Bar charts
Bar charts are used to present data for comparison in sizes or amounts, and especially to emphasize differences. They do not show individual data points. Avoid the confusion of using too many colors and patterns on the bars, and make the width of the bars wider than the spaces between them.
Line graphs
Line graphs effectively demonstrate trends or change over time or concentrations compared to a standard. Limit the number of axes to two if possible, and provide regular intervals along all axes. Set the lengths of the axes to eliminate distortion of the curve (too steep or flat) that connects the data points.
Photographs
Photographs provide perspective and context to the viewer and may be used to show a field area, specimen, laboratory equipment, and technique among other things. Photographs of your subject should be properly illuminated, in focus, and include all of the appropriate area. A scale, such as a ruler, hammer, or person, is necessary.
Maps
A map allows the reader to quickly understand where your study area is located. The coordinates of your study area (e.g. latitude and longitude or grid coordinates) must be included on the map, and the boundaries of the map should be limited to and include all of your study area. Simplify the map to eliminate unnecessary words, lines, or anything that detracts from the purpose of the map.
How to cite sources
Footnotes are rarely used in geowriting. Sources of information are cited within the text by placing the author's name(s) and date of publication in parentheses either within or at the end of the sentence which refers to that information. Quotations are similarly cited within the text by including the source page number(s) within the parentheses following the date of publication. Complete references to source publications are given in a Literature or References Cited section, arranged alphabetically by the first author's last name, at the end of the paper. Because the details of capitalization, punctuation, abbreviations, etc. vary among the geojournals it is essential that you scrupulously adhere to the citation style of the journal appropriate to your specific research. When in doubt use the GSA Bulletin format.
Research resources
Primary sources
Primary sources are research articles published in major geologic journals such as Geology, Science, GSA Bulletin, Journal of Sedimentary Research, and AAPG Bulletin.
Secondary (derivative) sources
Secondary sources are text or source books that do not contain primary research but in which the author has compiled the works of others.
Data bases
Many reliable data bases are available on web sites, including:http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/
National Climatic Data Centerhttp://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/research.html NASA EOS IDS Volcanology Teamhttp://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/ Geologic Hazards Team
You should discuss with your advisor the use of appropriate data bases in your own research.
Scribner Library (http://hudson2.skidmore.edu/irc/library/)
Interlibrary Loan (ILL)GeoRef and GeoBaseThese are international data bases that list virtually all publications in the geologic literature by author, subject, title, and key words.
Unacceptable resources
Do not use non peer-reviewed publications such as popular periodicals, nonscientific journals, class lecture notes, and virtually all web sites except those listed above under Data bases or those approved by your advisor. Scrupulously avoid encyclopedias and compendia.
Weaknesses to avoid in scientific writing
Inadequate preparation
Scientific writing begins with a complete understanding of your subject, previous studies, methods, data, results, and conclusions. Initially, plan to spend a great deal of time gathering, studying, and understanding scientific literature related to your area of research. This will enable you to support your findings with other scientific work in addition to your own data, and to define the significance of your research.
Lack of focus and organization
Your paper must be centered around a single point of emphasis. Therefore, the organization of ideas in your paper should follow a logical progression that leads to your point. Always begin with an outline. Avoid adding too many diverse points, extraneous material, speculative ideas, unnecessary redundancy, and excessive wordiness.
Inadequate support for interpretations
Limit your interpretations to only those supported by your data.
Inconsistencies and errors
Carefully follow the writing guidelines provided.
Poor construction of figures and tables
Tables and figures should present data in the simplest form to avoid confusion and should be able to stand alone without the text.
Published guidelines on scientific writing
Booth, V., 1993. Communicating in Science: Writing a Scientific Paper and Speaking at Scientific Meetings, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.Committee on the Conduct of Science, 1989. On Being a Scientist. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington D.C.Committee on Sources, 1988. Sources, Their Use and Acknowledgment. Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH.Davis, M., 1997. Scientific Papers and Presentations. Academic Press, New York.Day, R., 1992. Scientific English: A Guide for Scientists and Other Professionals. Oryx Press, Phoenix, AZ.Day, R., 1994. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 4th ed. Oryx Press, Phoenix, AZ.Dreyfuss, H., 1984. Symbol Sourcebook - An Authoritative Guide to International Graphic Symbols. Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY.Ebel, H., Bliefoert, C. and Russey, W., 1987. The Art of Scientific Writing. C H Publishers, New York.Katz, M., 1985. Elements of the Scientific Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students and Professionals. Yale University Press, New Haven.Meador, R., 1985. Guidelines for Preparing Proposals. Lewis, Chelsea, MI. O'Connor, M., 1991. Writing Successfully in Science. Harper Collins Academic, London.Reynolds, L. and Simmonds, D., 1983. Presentation of Data in Science. Nijhoff, The Hague.Tuft, E., 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT.
An Adobe Acrobat PDF of these Writing Guidelines for Research Papers is available by clicking the link.
If you do not have a copy of Adobe Acrobat Reader you can get it by clicking the link.
Title page
Titles should be brief and incorporate key words that focus attention on hypotheses and objectives of the proposed research. Titles are centered and all in capital letters. The author's name is centered in capital and lower-case letters, with first name first. The author's address is centered in capital and lower-case letters in italics. Date of submission is centered as is the person or agency to which the paper is submitted. The date and person/agency are appropriate for theses, and term papers but not for papers submitted for publication.
Abstract
The abstract is the first section of a paper following the title page and the last to be written. It is the most important section of the paper, and the most difficult to write. Abstracts are generally less than 250 words in length, very concise, and precisely worded. A Descriptive Abstract, which should be avoided because it cannot stand alone without the remainder of the paper, is a mere condensation of the paper. The preferred form, the Informative Abstract is a self-contained entity that: 1) states the problem or purpose of the research, 2) presents the basic methodologies used, 3) summarizes the principal findings, 4) points out the major conclusions. Thus, the reader obtains the essence of the paper without the details of the full text. Where journal articles are concerned, readers will often go to the abstract only if the title is of interest and will read on only if the abstract is interesting and informative. In many instances, such as papers presented orally or as posters at society meetings, the abstract is the only published record of a body of research and, therefore, the mode of writing which is most critical to your professional development.
Introduction
Inform the reader of the subject, purpose, and scope of the proposed research. This section may include some literature review and a brief rationale as well as a statement of anticipated or realized beneficial outcome. Most importantly, the introduction must define the hypothesis and objectives of the proposed or completed research.
Literature review
This section consists of published information and controversies that pertain to the thesis of the proposed research. Though it is often presented in a history context, this literature establishes your expertise in working with the contemporary hypotheses, methodologies, and information of your field of research. Keep this section brief and to the point.
Materials and Methods
This section provides an outline of how your proposed work will proceed. It must provide information on the field and laboratory materials, data collection, and analytical techniques that you plan to use to accomplish your objective. The need for specific materials, laboratory equipment, and travel for field work should be justified in this section.
Results
This section of the research paper is that in which you present the data obtained during the course of your research. This represents the core of your labors in the lab or the field and is the set of data upon which your interpretations are based. Depending on the nature of the research, this section will variously include tables, graphs, photographs, maps, geologic columns, and written descriptions. However, all but the latter must be described and referred to in written text. A graph, table, or image without written text to describe its contents is of no use to the reader and does not assist that person in perceiving your insight into the data.
Discussion and Conclusions
In a research paper, the discussion presents the analysis and interpretation of the results and demonstrates that you have accomplished the purpose of the research. Always bear in mind that interpretations must derive from, and be consistent with, your documented observations. Contrary to the inaccurate stereotype of scientific writing as a dispassionate reporting of facts and figures, the discussion is a persuasive essay that is structured to convince the reader that your interpretations are valid and your work is worthwhile. To accomplish this it is useful to restate your most important results, support them with relevant observations from the literature, and briefly restate the The discussion should end with a firm conclusion which is a clear and simple synthesis of your work that leaves the reader with the strongest and most important single point of the research. This is best accomplished in one or two sentences located at the end of the discussion.
References
Footnotes are rarely used in geowriting. Sources of information are cited within the text by placing the author's name(s) and date of publication in parentheses either within or at the end of the sentence which refers to that information. Quotations are similarly cited within the text by including the source page number(s) within the parentheses following the date of publication. Complete references to source publications are given in a Literature or References Cited section. An example might be: (Miller 1921, p. 70-76).The References Cited section of your paper is arranged alphabetically by the first author's last name, at the end of the paper. Because the details of capitalization, punctuation, abbreviations, etc. vary among the geojournals it is essential that you scrupulously adhere to the citation style of the journal appropriate to your specific research. When in doubt use the GSA Bulletin format. For example: http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/bulguid4.htm When you scroll down in the GSA Bulletin Style and Manuscript Outline to the “References Cited” section, you will find a link to “Sample References.”
Appendices
An appendix consists of nonessential materials that support a point in the text by providing additional information. For example, the raw data used in statistical analyses usually appears as a table or data matrix in an appendix. These tables may include hundreds of data that are not well suited for inclusion within the body of the text itself. Another type of appendix consists of many paragraphs of discussion relevant to a specific point within the body of the text, but not to the discussion as a whole. A third type consists of a series of figures produced from statistical analysis, computer modeling, satellite imagery, and more that do not fit into the body of the text because or their large volume.
General Guidelines
Double space the entire manuscript (abstract, text, references, figure captions, tables appendices) on 8.5 x 11 inch paper with 1 inch margins.Number all pages; page number one is the page on which the abstract appears or on the first page of text if there is no abstract.Use a standard font; 10 or 12 point only.Do not justify or break words at the right margin unless they are hyphenated to begin with.Use appendices for long tables or listings such as locality information.Do not use footnotes.There are two levels of text headings. Center the first and use all capitals; underline the second and separate it from the text by a period and two hyphens. Use underlining instead of italics.Formally proposed and time (e.g., Early Cambrian, Late Devonian) and time-rock designations (e.g., Lower Cambrian, Upper Devonian) are proper nouns and are not synonymous. Time units are measured in years whereas time-rock units refer to position in section.Spell out whole numbers zero through nine except when associated with an abbreviated unit of measurement (e.g., 5 mm); use Arabic numerals for numbers 10 and greater. Spell out all numbers beginning a sentence.Provide all measurements in metric units; English units may also be included in parentheses. Do not use periods for unit abbreviations.The geoscience faculty expect you to submit college-level work that reflects serious effort and adequate preparation on your part. Grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors should not appear on any submitted paper. Refer to The Skidmore Guide to Writing for specific details on standards for college-level writing.Plagiarism is unacceptable.
Plagiarism
For guidelines on what constitutes plagiarism consult:
http://hudson2.skidmore.edu/academics/writingbrd/WGDocumentation.html
Especially in science you want to reference and credit all work done by others. Referencing is very simple (see the How to Cite Sources section). When in doubt, include a citation.
How to present data
Data presented in the form of a table, bar chart, line graph, or figure quickly and effectively conveys your point or interpretation of the data to the reader/audience. Therefore, appropriate selection of the form for data presentation is important. That decision is based upon the point you wish to make. If the form you choose is well-constructed with an appropriate caption, it will be able to stand alone and will make a single point that supports a specific idea. All data must be presented with honesty, accuracy, and precision. If you choose to include a table or figure in your paper it must be cited within the text. Additionally, tables and figures are numbered sequentially and separately (e.g. Table 1, Figure 1, etc.) and each must have a descriptive caption.
Tables
A table is used to present a specific set of data to make a specific point. For instance, its easier to compare certain data points or to show trends or relationships between data when they are presented on a table. Provide the minimum number of rows and columns organized and labeled in a way that accurately and concisely conveys your point. If you wish to make more than one point, construct more tables.
Figures
Figures include diagrams, maps, photographs, flowcharts, line graphs, bar charts, and almost everything except tables and appendices. They must clearly and accurately convey additional information that may be difficult to convey in words.
Bar charts
Bar charts are used to present data for comparison in sizes or amounts, and especially to emphasize differences. They do not show individual data points. Avoid the confusion of using too many colors and patterns on the bars, and make the width of the bars wider than the spaces between them.
Line graphs
Line graphs effectively demonstrate trends or change over time or concentrations compared to a standard. Limit the number of axes to two if possible, and provide regular intervals along all axes. Set the lengths of the axes to eliminate distortion of the curve (too steep or flat) that connects the data points.
Photographs
Photographs provide perspective and context to the viewer and may be used to show a field area, specimen, laboratory equipment, and technique among other things. Photographs of your subject should be properly illuminated, in focus, and include all of the appropriate area. A scale, such as a ruler, hammer, or person, is necessary.
Maps
A map allows the reader to quickly understand where your study area is located. The coordinates of your study area (e.g. latitude and longitude or grid coordinates) must be included on the map, and the boundaries of the map should be limited to and include all of your study area. Simplify the map to eliminate unnecessary words, lines, or anything that detracts from the purpose of the map.
How to cite sources
Footnotes are rarely used in geowriting. Sources of information are cited within the text by placing the author's name(s) and date of publication in parentheses either within or at the end of the sentence which refers to that information. Quotations are similarly cited within the text by including the source page number(s) within the parentheses following the date of publication. Complete references to source publications are given in a Literature or References Cited section, arranged alphabetically by the first author's last name, at the end of the paper. Because the details of capitalization, punctuation, abbreviations, etc. vary among the geojournals it is essential that you scrupulously adhere to the citation style of the journal appropriate to your specific research. When in doubt use the GSA Bulletin format.
Research resources
Primary sources
Primary sources are research articles published in major geologic journals such as Geology, Science, GSA Bulletin, Journal of Sedimentary Research, and AAPG Bulletin.
Secondary (derivative) sources
Secondary sources are text or source books that do not contain primary research but in which the author has compiled the works of others.
Data bases
Many reliable data bases are available on web sites, including:http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/
National Climatic Data Centerhttp://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/research.html NASA EOS IDS Volcanology Teamhttp://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/ Geologic Hazards Team
You should discuss with your advisor the use of appropriate data bases in your own research.
Scribner Library (http://hudson2.skidmore.edu/irc/library/)
Interlibrary Loan (ILL)GeoRef and GeoBaseThese are international data bases that list virtually all publications in the geologic literature by author, subject, title, and key words.
Unacceptable resources
Do not use non peer-reviewed publications such as popular periodicals, nonscientific journals, class lecture notes, and virtually all web sites except those listed above under Data bases or those approved by your advisor. Scrupulously avoid encyclopedias and compendia.
Weaknesses to avoid in scientific writing
Inadequate preparation
Scientific writing begins with a complete understanding of your subject, previous studies, methods, data, results, and conclusions. Initially, plan to spend a great deal of time gathering, studying, and understanding scientific literature related to your area of research. This will enable you to support your findings with other scientific work in addition to your own data, and to define the significance of your research.
Lack of focus and organization
Your paper must be centered around a single point of emphasis. Therefore, the organization of ideas in your paper should follow a logical progression that leads to your point. Always begin with an outline. Avoid adding too many diverse points, extraneous material, speculative ideas, unnecessary redundancy, and excessive wordiness.
Inadequate support for interpretations
Limit your interpretations to only those supported by your data.
Inconsistencies and errors
Carefully follow the writing guidelines provided.
Poor construction of figures and tables
Tables and figures should present data in the simplest form to avoid confusion and should be able to stand alone without the text.
Published guidelines on scientific writing
Booth, V., 1993. Communicating in Science: Writing a Scientific Paper and Speaking at Scientific Meetings, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.Committee on the Conduct of Science, 1989. On Being a Scientist. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington D.C.Committee on Sources, 1988. Sources, Their Use and Acknowledgment. Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH.Davis, M., 1997. Scientific Papers and Presentations. Academic Press, New York.Day, R., 1992. Scientific English: A Guide for Scientists and Other Professionals. Oryx Press, Phoenix, AZ.Day, R., 1994. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 4th ed. Oryx Press, Phoenix, AZ.Dreyfuss, H., 1984. Symbol Sourcebook - An Authoritative Guide to International Graphic Symbols. Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY.Ebel, H., Bliefoert, C. and Russey, W., 1987. The Art of Scientific Writing. C H Publishers, New York.Katz, M., 1985. Elements of the Scientific Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students and Professionals. Yale University Press, New Haven.Meador, R., 1985. Guidelines for Preparing Proposals. Lewis, Chelsea, MI. O'Connor, M., 1991. Writing Successfully in Science. Harper Collins Academic, London.Reynolds, L. and Simmonds, D., 1983. Presentation of Data in Science. Nijhoff, The Hague.Tuft, E., 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT.
An Adobe Acrobat PDF of these Writing Guidelines for Research Papers is available by clicking the link.
If you do not have a copy of Adobe Acrobat Reader you can get it by clicking the link.
MENULIS SUMBER RUJUKAN
References.
When incorporating the opinions, data, and illustrations of other sources into your writing, you must give credit to those sources. For information of how to paraphrase and quote sources, see Appendix B.
In these writing guidelines, the format for bestowing that credit is an author-year referencing system. Within the text of the article or report, references should be cited by giving in brackets the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication of the reference. The year should always be enclosed in brackets; whether the name of the author(s) is enclosed depends on the context. The two possibilities are illustrated as follows:
Recently, a new chemical process was developed for eliminating nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines [Perry and Siebers, 1986].
Recently, Perry and Siebers [1986] developed a new chemical process for eliminating nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines.
For three or more authors, just list the first author's name as follows: [Lee and others, 1972]. If there is no author listed, give the first word (not articles, conjunctions, or prepositions) of the document: [Manual, 1983] or ["Plastic," 1989]. If you have two documents with the same author and year (for example, two documents by Jones in 2003), then assign the reference listings as follows: [Jones, 2003a] for the citation that alphabetically appears first at the end, and [Jones, 2003b] for the citation that appears second at the end.
The full reference citations will appear in an alphabetical list at the end of your document. Given below are examples of the listings. (Back to top of page)
Book
Author, Title in Initial Capitals and Italics, edition # (City of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication).
Fox, R.W., and A.T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978).
A Manual of Style, 12th ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969).
McElroy, W.D., Cell Physiology and Biochemistry, 3rd ed., Foundations of Modern Biology Series (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971).
Article
Author, "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," Journal Name in Italics, vol. #, no. # (Date), page #s.
Owyoung, A. "High Resolution Coherent Raman Spectroscopy of Gases," in Laser Spectroscopy IV, ed. by H. Walther and K. W. Rothe (New York: Springer- Verlag, 1979), pp. 175-182.
Perry, R.A., and D. L. Siebers, "Rapid Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides in Exhaust Gas Streams," Nature, vol. 324, no. 2 (August 1986), pp. 657-659.
Steeper, R.R., "Reducing Nitrogen Oxides With Ammonia Injection," Phys. Rev., vol. 13, no. 2 (1983), pp. 132-135.
Newspaper
Author (if known), "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," Newspaper Name (Date), section #, page #s.
Luoma, J.R., "U.S. Hunts New Ways to Clean Up Wastes," New York Times (3 January 1988), pp. 15, 18.
"Plastic Explosives Blamed for Airline Disaster," New York Times (3 January 1989) sec. 2, p. 11.
Report
Author, Title in Initial Capitals and Italics, Report # (City of Publication: Publisher (Company or Agency), Date).
Borcherdt, R.D., Results and Data From Seismologic and Geologic Studies Following Earthquakes of December 7, 1988, Near Spitak, Armenia SSR, vol. 1, USGS OFR 89-163-A (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey, 1989).
Guide to Operations, IBM Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library #1502490 (Boca Raton, Florida: IBM Corporation, 1984).
Spent Fuel Storage Requirements, DOE RL-88-34 (Richland, WA: Department of Energy, 1988).
Sheldon, K.E., Analysis Methods to Control Performance Variability and Cost in Turbine Engine Manufacturing (Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech, 4 May 2001), pp. 156-158.
Patent
Patent Holder, Patent # (Date of Patent).
Lyon, R.K., U.S. Patent No. 3,900,554 (August 1975).
Brochure
Author, "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," brochure (City of Publication: Publisher (Company or Agency), Date).
Cheng, D., "Chemtronix XT Manometer," brochure (Asheville, NC: Chemtronix Corporation, 1974).
Interview
Speaker's Name, Speaker's Affiliation (City of Interview: Date of Interview), type of interview.
Lee, R., Engineer at Apple Corporation (San Jose: 5 June 1987), phone interview.
Letter
Author, Affiliation (City: Date of Letter), recipient of letter.
Alley, C.D., Plant Manager of Mason-Hanger Pantex Plant (Amarillo, TX: 3 March 1989), letter to Amarillo Globe News.
Web Site
Author, "Title," web listing in italics (City: Publisher, Date).
Bassett, Vicki, "Causes and Effects of the Rapid Sinking of the Titanic," http://writing.eng.vt.edu/uer/bassett.html (Blacksburg, VA: Undergraduate Engineering Review, November 1998).
Varian Corporation, "Smithsonian Researchers Use High-Tech Digital Imaging Device to Study Collections," http://www.varian.com/ (Palo Alto, CA: Varian Corporation, 13 February 2002).
When incorporating the opinions, data, and illustrations of other sources into your writing, you must give credit to those sources. For information of how to paraphrase and quote sources, see Appendix B.
In these writing guidelines, the format for bestowing that credit is an author-year referencing system. Within the text of the article or report, references should be cited by giving in brackets the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication of the reference. The year should always be enclosed in brackets; whether the name of the author(s) is enclosed depends on the context. The two possibilities are illustrated as follows:
Recently, a new chemical process was developed for eliminating nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines [Perry and Siebers, 1986].
Recently, Perry and Siebers [1986] developed a new chemical process for eliminating nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines.
For three or more authors, just list the first author's name as follows: [Lee and others, 1972]. If there is no author listed, give the first word (not articles, conjunctions, or prepositions) of the document: [Manual, 1983] or ["Plastic," 1989]. If you have two documents with the same author and year (for example, two documents by Jones in 2003), then assign the reference listings as follows: [Jones, 2003a] for the citation that alphabetically appears first at the end, and [Jones, 2003b] for the citation that appears second at the end.
The full reference citations will appear in an alphabetical list at the end of your document. Given below are examples of the listings. (Back to top of page)
Book
Author, Title in Initial Capitals and Italics, edition # (City of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication).
Fox, R.W., and A.T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978).
A Manual of Style, 12th ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969).
McElroy, W.D., Cell Physiology and Biochemistry, 3rd ed., Foundations of Modern Biology Series (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971).
Article
Author, "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," Journal Name in Italics, vol. #, no. # (Date), page #s.
Owyoung, A. "High Resolution Coherent Raman Spectroscopy of Gases," in Laser Spectroscopy IV, ed. by H. Walther and K. W. Rothe (New York: Springer- Verlag, 1979), pp. 175-182.
Perry, R.A., and D. L. Siebers, "Rapid Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides in Exhaust Gas Streams," Nature, vol. 324, no. 2 (August 1986), pp. 657-659.
Steeper, R.R., "Reducing Nitrogen Oxides With Ammonia Injection," Phys. Rev., vol. 13, no. 2 (1983), pp. 132-135.
Newspaper
Author (if known), "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," Newspaper Name (Date), section #, page #s.
Luoma, J.R., "U.S. Hunts New Ways to Clean Up Wastes," New York Times (3 January 1988), pp. 15, 18.
"Plastic Explosives Blamed for Airline Disaster," New York Times (3 January 1989) sec. 2, p. 11.
Report
Author, Title in Initial Capitals and Italics, Report # (City of Publication: Publisher (Company or Agency), Date).
Borcherdt, R.D., Results and Data From Seismologic and Geologic Studies Following Earthquakes of December 7, 1988, Near Spitak, Armenia SSR, vol. 1, USGS OFR 89-163-A (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey, 1989).
Guide to Operations, IBM Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library #1502490 (Boca Raton, Florida: IBM Corporation, 1984).
Spent Fuel Storage Requirements, DOE RL-88-34 (Richland, WA: Department of Energy, 1988).
Sheldon, K.E., Analysis Methods to Control Performance Variability and Cost in Turbine Engine Manufacturing (Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech, 4 May 2001), pp. 156-158.
Patent
Patent Holder, Patent # (Date of Patent).
Lyon, R.K., U.S. Patent No. 3,900,554 (August 1975).
Brochure
Author, "Title in Initial Capitals and Quotation Marks," brochure (City of Publication: Publisher (Company or Agency), Date).
Cheng, D., "Chemtronix XT Manometer," brochure (Asheville, NC: Chemtronix Corporation, 1974).
Interview
Speaker's Name, Speaker's Affiliation (City of Interview: Date of Interview), type of interview.
Lee, R., Engineer at Apple Corporation (San Jose: 5 June 1987), phone interview.
Letter
Author, Affiliation (City: Date of Letter), recipient of letter.
Alley, C.D., Plant Manager of Mason-Hanger Pantex Plant (Amarillo, TX: 3 March 1989), letter to Amarillo Globe News.
Web Site
Author, "Title," web listing in italics (City: Publisher, Date).
Bassett, Vicki, "Causes and Effects of the Rapid Sinking of the Titanic," http://writing.eng.vt.edu/uer/bassett.html (Blacksburg, VA: Undergraduate Engineering Review, November 1998).
Varian Corporation, "Smithsonian Researchers Use High-Tech Digital Imaging Device to Study Collections," http://www.varian.com/ (Palo Alto, CA: Varian Corporation, 13 February 2002).
Wednesday, October 24, 2007
JANGAN RUNSINGKAN DIRI ANDA KERANA TIDAK DAPAT MENULIS....
MENULIS UMPAMA MENGEMBARA DI LAUTAN ILMU, SEUMPAMA KEMBARA ANGKASAWAN DI ANGKASA.
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JIKA ANDA MEMERLUKAN SEBARANG KHIDMAT PENULISAN, SILA HUBUNGI KAMI DI TALIAN :
013-408 4474 /017-417 7175 (EN. ZALI)
KEMBALI KE LAMAN UTAMA BAHTERA GROUP
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